Even though the dentist is not anywhere near you or your teeth , simply hearing the drill may produce feelings of arousal, anxiety, or pain because, over time, you have come to associate the noise of the drill with the pain in your mouth. Similarly, patients who have undergone chemotherapy, a treatment that often leaves people feeling nauseous and weak, sometimes develop anticipatory nausea even before they begin receiving a periodic dosage of the drugs.
They may start to feel sick when they are sitting in the chair waiting for treatment or in the car as they are driving to the hospital. A study by Christine Cameron et al.
Unconditioned Unconditioned stimulus response tooth drilling pain Stage 2 Neutral Unconditioned Unconditioned stimulus stimulus response dentist office tooth drilling pain Stage 3 Conditioned Conditioned stimulus response dentist office pain Operant conditioning refers to the idea that behaviors can be increased or decreased as a function of the consequences of engaging in them Skinner, On the one hand, desired behaviors can be positively reinforced through rewards, which should lead to their continuation.
For example, if you are trying to stick to an exercise program, you might decide to give yourself a small reward each week that you run at least 4 days. On the other hand, the frequency of undesirable behaviors can be decreased through punishment. These negative consequences should motivate people to avoid drinking and driving. Operant conditioning can be used to either decrease undesirable behaviors through adding a negative consequence, or increase desirable ones through adding a positive consequence.
Moreover, this may be particularly true for teenagers, who typically have relatively little money to spend and see Box 3. In contrast, increasing the rewards of engaging in health-promoting behaviors can also be effective.
Children who were rewarded later showed increases in physical activity and, more importantly, decreased in percent overweight. Can you think of any drawbacks to this approach to creating health-related behavior change?
Theories of Health Behavior Box 3. Children ages 10 to 14 were given money and then told they could purchase portions of a healthy food fruit or vegetable or a less healthy food a higher-fat snack.
The price of the foods varied: Sometimes the healthy food was more expensive, and sometimes it was less expensive. Raising the prices of both healthy and unhealthy foods decreased preference for that food, showing that decreasing the cost of healthy foods and increasing the costs of unhealthy foods may be an effective way to improve healthy eating. Operant conditioning approaches are most effective when people receive rewards for making small steps toward behavior change.
People should therefore receive rewards simply for taking steps toward adopting the behavior. After you have mastered one of these steps toward smoking cessation, you would then receive rewards only for mastering the next step. Operant conditioning can also occur simply through observational learning, namely, watching someone else receive rewards or punishment for engaging in a particular behavior Bandura, , Findings indicated that the more younger siblings believed their older siblings drank, the more the younger siblings themselves drank and the more the younger siblings believed that positive outcomes would emerge from heavy drinking.
In sum, younger siblings may learn through modeling and vicarious experience about the consequences of engaging in particular types of health-related behaviors. The presence of this story line led to changes in nutrition knowledge, attitudes, and self-reported behavior among those who watched this show. Similarly, Box 3. As we examine in detail in Chapter 7, one way to help alcoholics stop drinking is to give them a drug e.
Researchers then examined rates of pregnancy over the next 3 years for all participants. This research provides strong evidence that watching television can have strong, and detrimental, effects on health-related behavior.
It may sound pathetic, but ask any woman; those early teen years are torturous, when nothing about ourselves ever seems good or pretty or perfect enough. Most women will cop to comparing themselves, at least occasionally, to the actresses and celebs of their generation that appear in magazines or advertisements.
Retouching techniques that were once used mainly to erase blemishes or stray hairs have become tools for radical human body distortion, shrinking waists and vanquishing years, turning models and actresses into leggy dolls of literally inhuman proportions.
Even governments are examining the public health consequences of mass media images that look so little like the masses. Most serious news organizations, including Newsweek, have strict rules against photo manipulation. Already models weigh about 23 percent less than the average woman, according to a SizeUSA study.
We shudder to think how that disparity may have grown in the intervening four years. But most memorable, perhaps, were the shocking before-and-after pictures of Faith Hill on the cover of Redbook, revealed last July by popular femme-gossip site Jezebel and circulated around the Internet en masse. The problem today, of course, is how easy technology has made it to perfect those images. Buy a digital camera and it comes with retouching elements. Anyone can learn how to use Photoshop to blend and tighten and thin—people do it for their MySpace photos all the time.
Several studies show that women feel worse about themselves after reading fashion magazines, and kids as young as six are having their photos retouched. The question is, do readers know the extent to which their favorite stars have been transformed? Last year the health ministry of Sweden put out a powerful PSA in an effort to spread the word. Her eyes were made whiter and bluer, her teeth straighter and whiter.
Her lips were plumped along with her breasts, and her blemishes were removed. Then her hair was lightened and thickened. But is French-style regulation really the answer? Or should the industry be counted on to police itself? Theories of Health Behavior Observational learning, or modeling, from parents, peers, and the media is a strong predictor of smoking in teenagers. The theory behind this approach is that patients will grow to associate drinking alcohol with nausea and therefore stop drinking.
However, patients typically understand that the Antabuse is causing the sickness; therefore, they may simply stop taking the drug instead of avoiding alcohol. Second, operant conditioning can lead people to engage in a behavior simply to get the reward but not because of any intrinsic changes in their intentions to engage in the behavior; after the reward is withdrawn, the behavior will stop.
Children who received rewards were more likely to use the rinse, but after the rewards were eliminated, they no longer continued to use the rinse. In sum, learning theories may be effective at changing behavior but are less effective in maintaining behavior. Social Cognitive Theory Social cognitive theory posits that people acquire attitudes through various sources in their immediate social network as well as by observing people presented in the media Bandura, , Direct modeling occurs when people observe others in their social networks engaging in particular behavior e.
These two components of social cognitive theory are described in detail here. For example, people who strongly believe they will be able to follow through on their intentions to exercise four times a week will be more likely to successfully carry out this behavior than those who have doubts about their ability to follow through on such intentions. She may also continue with her goal of quitting even if she experiences a brief lapse in judgment and smokes a cigarette on one occasion.
Theories of Health Behavior a desired outcome. As described in the section on learning theories, outcome expectancies can be learned through direct experience with a behavior, or by observing the consequence someone else experiences as a result of that behavior. You may learn, for example, that drinking alcohol leads to relaxation by watching the positive consequences your parents experience after drinking a glass of wine after a tough day at work.
Social cognitive theory is a good predictor of a variety of different types of behavior, such as smoking cessation Baldwin et al. For example, researchers in one study predicting weight loss among overweight adults found that outcome expectancies regarding losing weight were associated with actual weight loss as long as 18 months later Finch et al. Similarly, and as shown in Figure 3. These studies all suggest that social cognitive theory is a useful predictor of health-related behavior.
Can you think of an alternative explanation for this association? For example, a person who is trying to lose weight might initially fail to reach a very large goal e.
Second, some researchers believe that social cognitive theory really does not improve on other models of health behavior, such as the theory of planned behavior. For example, a study by McCaul et al. Although the models described thus far have all focused on describing the various components that predict whether people engage in a particular health-related behavior, some researchers believe these models are too simple because they focus only on the outcome behavior of interest e.
Critics of these models believe that behavior change occurs gradually and in stages, and they have therefore proposed alternative models that focus on the process that leads to behavior change. In turn, these stage models specify a set of ordered categories, or stages, that people go through as they attempt to change their behavior. It is likely, for example, that a person who decides to stop smoking will experience several setbacks, or relapses, as he or she attempts to quit.
Individuals who are in this stage lack an awareness of the problem behavior and have no intentions or plans to change the behavior in the foreseeable future e. People who smoke, for example, may believe that because they exercise regularly, they will not suffer the negative health effects of smoking and that if they stop smoking, they will gain weight and hence suffer the much worse health consequences of obesity.
They may also believe that although other people have suffered negative outcomes from the behavior, they have some unique personal invulnerability. A friend in college once claimed that he actually drove better while intoxicated. Individuals who are beginning to consider making a change are in the contem- plation stage e.
This stage is often characterized by a growing awareness of the costs of the negative behavior as well as of their personal susceptibility. This stage is often characterized by ambivalence as well as frustration. Theories of Health Behavior Individuals who have made a commitment to change their behavior are in the stage of preparation e. People in this stage are preparing to ultimately change their behavior but are starting by taking a series of small steps toward the desired behavior change.
The behavior change is now public, and the criterion for successfully engaging in it is high. Although the risk of relapse is strong at this stage, people often receive a lot of support from their family and friends during this stage because they have made a public commitment to changing their behavior. The focus in this stage is on preventing relapse. People receive less social support during this stage because they have already engaged in action, but support is still an important predictor of maintaining the new behavior.
Considerable research using the transtheoretical model has focused on its effec- tiveness in predicting smoking cessation Prochaska et al. Finally, those in the preparation stage had made more lifetime and last-year quit attempts than those in either contem- plation or precontemplation. Percent 50 40 30 20 10 0 Making a quit attempt Currently not smoking At the earliest stages, people must become aware of the problem and learn effective ways of avoiding it.
Social liberation, external forces that facilitate change, can also be effective in moving people along. For example, programs that prohibit smoking in particular buildings can help make the act of smoking less convenient and less comfortable. So, behavior-change messages should help people focus on the costs of continuing the old behavior e. I would feel protected against STDs if my partner and I used condoms.
My partner would feel more protected against STDs if we used condoms. I would feel more responsible about STDs if I used condoms. Protecting myself from STDs would increase my self-esteem. Using condoms to guard against the transmission of STDs builds trust.
Condoms are easy to use. Happy you, happy us! Sanderson, 2nd Edition — PDF ebook. Health Psychology by Catherine A. Share Facebook Twitter Pinterest linkedin. Discover other editions. Buy Now. Summary of Health Psychology by Catherine A. The e-book emphasizes functional and real-world issues.
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